The Cuban Missile Crisis :: American America History

The Cuban Missile Crisis The world was at the edge of a third world war. This was the result of a variety of things: the Cuban Revolution, the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion, US anti-communism, insecurity of the Soviet Union, and Cuba's fear of invasion all made causes for war. However, war was not the result due to great cooperation from both President Kennedy and President Khrushchev and each of the decisions made by the leaders was crucial in the outcome of The Crisis. Kennedy's choice to take action by means of quarantine instead of air-strike and Khrushchev's decision to abide by the quarantines were perhaps the two most significant decisions made by the leaders in order to prevent war. The Cuban Missile Crisis showed the world that compromising and discussion can in-fact prevent war. As Khrushchev said in 1962, "They talk about who won and who lost. Human reason won. Mankind won." 1 The world had almost seen another world war, the effects of which would have been devastating because of the weapons involved. Humanity, indeed, was the prevention of the war. The Cuban Revolution was a background cause to the crisis. On January 1st, 1959 a Marxist regime in Cuba would have seemed unlikely. To the communist party in Cuba, Fidel Castro appeared tempestuous, irresponsible and stubbornly bourgeois. In 1943 President Batista appointed a communist to his Cabinet, as he used communists as leaders of the labor unions. Batista started to fail the Cuban communists and their loyalties transferred gradually to Castro, completely by 1958. On December 1st, 1961 Castro declared himself a Marxist and claimed he had always been a revolutionary, studying Das Kapital of Karl Marx. Most Cubans idolized Castro, supported his government and at least accepted his measures.2 He claimed to have a desire to help the poor and said he would have found it impossible to follow the dictates of a single philosophy. His first action in power was to reduce all rents on the island, making the land owners, many of who were American, unhappy. In 1960 Castro was swiftly pushi ng Cuba to the left, and as a result many Cubans left, along with the American investors. There was so much opposition to Castro's developments that he created a Committee for Defense of the Revolution out of fear of invasion from the US, internal guerrilla uprisings, and black marketing "counterrevolutionary activity".

Ascorbic Acid Determination

Determination of Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) concentration in some of Commercial Products, by Redox Titration Mouhannad AL. -Hachamii Sadiq J. Baqir Saadon A. Aowda Fatima A. Hussein, Dep. of chemistry, college of science, Babylon University Muhammed K. Alasedi Ministry of Health Hilla city, Babylon Abstract The goal of this search is to determine the concentration of vitamin C (Ascorbic acid ) in some of a Commercial Products, Vegetables and Fruit Juices by Redox Titration.A redox titration, involving an Iodometric method, has been used to do the analysis.L-Ascorbic acid was first isolated as a pure substance by Albert Azent-Gyorgi and Charles Kingin 1928 [Paulling ,1970] , an anti-oxidant and free radical scavenger, is found ubiquitously in fruit and vegetables such as citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, limes, tangerines etc. ), melons, tomatoes, peppers, broccoli, green leafy vegetables such as spinach, potatoes and turnips, its quantitative determination is especially important in the production of wine, beer, milk, soft drinks and fruit juices, where it can be a quality indicator [Gerrior & Zizza,1994] .Given the essential role played in the human diet and necessary to growth and repair of tissues in all parts of human body . It is necessary to form collagen an important skin proteins ,scar tissue ,tendons, ligaments, and blood vessels. vitamin C is essential for the healing of wounds, and for the repair and maintenance of cartilage, bones and teeth [Mcevoy ,1993] . Since vitamin C is easily oxidized, storage and cooking in air leads to the eventual oxidation of vitamin C by oxygen in the atmosphere.In addition, ascorbic acid is water-solubility vitamin means that a significant amount of vitamin C present in a food can be lost by boiling and then discarding the cooking water [Mcevoy ,1993]. The formula for ascorbic acid is C6H8O6 , It occurs as a white or slightly yellow crystal or powder with a slight acidic test , Ascorbic Acid is freely soluble in water; spa ringly soluble in alcohol; insoluble in chloroform, ether, and benzene [Moffat,1986]. The structures for the reduced (ascorbic acid) form and for the oxidized form (dehydroascorbic acid) are shown below: [pic]The amount of ascorbic acid can be determined by a redox titration with a standardized solution of iodine. The iodine is reduced by the ascorbic acid to form iodide. As shown in the other half of this redox equation. [pic] The titration end point is reached when a slight excess of iodine is added to the ascorbic acid solution [Bailey ,1974;Brody,1994;Pauling ,1976;Kalluer,1986]. Vitamin C deficiency leads to scurvy, a disease characterized by weakness, small hemorrhages throughout the body that cause gums and skin to bleed, and loosening of the teeth. Vitamin C can not synthesized through body cells, nor does it store it.It is therefore important to include plenty of vitamin C-containing foods in daily diet. vitamin C toxicity is very rare, because the body can not store the vi tamin however ,amounts greater than 2000 mg/day are not recommended because such high doses can lead to stomach up set and diarrhea. The minimum daily requirement is 30 mg. Well-balanced diets provide adequate amounts of the vitamin as measured by the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) of about 75 mg per day for adults (aged 15 or older), less for children, and more for pregnant and lactating women.The National Academy of Sciences recommends the consumption of 60 mg of ascorbic acid per day. . the Federal Food and Drug Administration has adopted the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of 60 mg/day A very small daily intake of vitamin C (10-15 mg/day for an adult) is required to avoid deficiency and stave off scurvy. However, there has been, and continues to be, vigorous debate on what the optimum daily intake of vitamin C is. Some have argued that 200 mg/day is an optimal daily intake for adult humans.Others have suggested 1-2 g/day is best, this despite studies that show that the bl ood is saturated with vitamin C at 100 mg/day, and any excess is excreted in the urine [RDA,1995; RDA,1987; Browne. ,1993; FAO/WHO,2002; Levine et al. ,1999; Levine et al. ,1995;Teoh ,1975]. |Recommended daily dietary intake of vitamin C: | | |AUSTRALIA milligrams |U. S. A. illigrams | |Infants: |30 |35 | |Children: |30-50 |45 | |Adult men: |30 |60 | |Adult women: |30 |60 | |Pregnancy (2nd and 3rd |60 |80 | |trimesters) | | | |Lactation: |60 |100 | I2 is not standard solution ,so it may be standardized with thiosulphate solution . Experimental Procedure for determination of [Bailey ,1974; Brody, 1994; Pauling,1976; Kalluer,1986]. 1. Preparation of 0. 005 mol L? iodine solution: Accurately weight two gm of KI and 1. 3g of I2 , dissolved to aless amount of water , shake until dissolving .Transfer iodine solution to a 1L volumetric flask , making sure to rinse all traces of solution in to the volumetric flask using distilled water , completed the volume up to the mark. 2. Preparation o f 0. 5% starch indicator solution: Soluble starch (0. 25gm) to a 100 mL conical flask or beaker and 50 mL of distilled water was added . Solution heated with stirring at 79 0C for 5 minutes , careful must be taken not to exceed the stated temperature. Allow solution to cool to room temperature. 3. Preparation of food/drink sample: Industrial Packaged fruit juices {Orange , Pineapple, Lemon ,Tmrhend and Apple (Miso), Pepsi (khaleek kadha), Red grapes(Niktar), Seven up (Kufa), Pomegranate (Linda) , Tmrhend (Toti), Orange (Dalia), and Granules peach (Rani) } may also need to be strained through cheese cloth if it contains a lot of pulp or seeds. †¢For analysis of vitamin C powders ( Tanc lemon , Tanc orange and livans powders ) dissolved 1 gm in 100mL of distilled water (in a volumetric flask). †¢ For analysis of vitamin C tablets ( Kruger and joiure tablets), dissolved a single tablet in 200 mL of distilled water (in a volumetric flask). †¢ Juice squeezed from fresh fru it (Diala orange , Hilla orange, Egypt orange ,allalinki ,pomegranate and apple Juices ) should be strained through cheese cloth in order to remove seeds and pulp which may block pipettes. Juice squeezed from fresh vegetables ( Tomato ,Onion ,Celery ,Option ,Potato and Lettuce juices ) should be strained through cheese cloth in order to remove seeds and pulp which may block pipettes. †¢Sample of fruit or vegetable (100gm) blended in a food processor together with 50 mL of distilled water. After blending, strain the pulp through cheese cloth, washing it 0mL in a volumetric flask. 4. Aliquot of the sample (20 ml) solution prepared above transfrred into a 250 mL conical flask , about 150 mL of distilled water and 1 mL of starch indicator solution. 5. Sample were titrated with 0. 005 mol L? 1 iodine solution. The endpoint of the titration is identified as the first distinct trace of a dark blue-black colour due to the starch-iodine complex. 6.Titration were repeated with further al iquots of sample solution until concordant results (titres agreeing within 0. 1 mL) were obtained. Results and discussion:- In this research estimating vitamin C in industrial juices (Orange , Pineapple, Lemon, Tmrhend and Apple (Miso), Pepsi (khaleek kadha), Red grapes (Niktar), Seven up (Kufa), Pomegranate (Linda) , Tmrhend (Toti), Orange (Dalia), fruits (Dalia) and Granules peach (Rani)), Kruger and joiure tablets, and Tanc lemon , Tanc orange and livans powders, and natural juices for fresh fruits (Diala orange , Hilla orange, Egypt orange ,mandarin ,pomegranate and apple Juices ) and fresh vegetables ( Tomato , Onion Celery ,cucumber ,Potato and Lettuce juices). It was calibrated using redox way by iodine calibration using starch as indicator , iodine was an adequate oxidizer used for this purpose.Table (1) show the in industrial juices estimated concentration and the proportion of vitamin C. Table (1):The results were obtained below, represent the vitamin C content in some ind ustrial juice in quantity mg / 100 ml and percentage %. |Amount calculated |Industrial product name |Chain | |mg / 100 ml | | | |11. 9 |Orange (Miso) |1 | |49. 4 |pineapple(Miso) |2 | |15. 4 |lemon (Miso) |3 | |14. 2 |Tmrhend (Miso) |4 | |13 |Apple (Miso) |5 | |19 |Pepsi (khaleek kadha) |6 | |35. |Red grapes(Niktar) |7 | |25. 88 |Seven up (Kufa) |8 | |28 |Pomegranate (Linda) |9 | |25. 77 |Tmrhend (Toti) |10 | |19.. 995 |Orange (Dalia) |11 | |13. 33 |fruits (Dalia) |12 | |53. 2 |Granules peach (Rani) |13 | |13. 33 |lemon (Tanc) |14 | |6. 665 |orange (Tanc) |15 | |13.. 33 |orange (livas) |16 | |69.. 95 |vitamin C (Kruger tablets) |17 | |19.. 995 |Vitamins (joiure tablets) |18 | Scheme (1) . Vitamin C content in some industrial juice (mg/100ml) .The result in table (1) and scheme (1) showed the highest concentration of vitamin C in industrial juices found in granules peach juice where concentration is (53. 32) mg / 100 ml and lowest in orange juice (Miso),hitting (11. 49) mg /100 ml ,e ither powder Limon Tanc, the presence of vitamin C according to bulletin declared on the product is 100 %,but the results show that we have reached 89. 9 % and its concentration was (3. 33) mg/100 ml, where results appeared supposed to be the weight of vitamin C (667) mg of origin (45) mg ,results show that this weight (599. 85) mg of origin (45) mg . While orange Tanc powder result of vitamin C amount to 44. 6 % with the amount according to bulletin declared as the products of 100 %,where it should the weight of vitamin C (667) mg of origin (45) mg ,results show that this weight (299. 9) mg of origin (45) mg .Vitamin C tablets – type Krueger according to bulletin declared only that all (1) gm contains (45) mg of vitamin C, but the results we obtained the concentration is (69. 95) mg in (1) gm ,an increase of about (25) mg. Either vitamins fruits tablets – type junior according to bulletin declared only that all (1) gm contains (8. 8) mg of vitamin C but we have receiv ed is (19. 995) mg in (1) gm, an increase of more than double. Where the study showed that the Tmrhend juice (Miso) was vitamin C focus as the results we obtained (25. 7) mg/100 ml ,but according to the bulletin attached descent rate and quality (1. 68) mg/100) ml ,either alimonadah juice (Miso) was its focus as the results we obtained (15. 4)mg/100 ml, but according to the bulletin attached descent rate and quality (0. 1) mg/100 ml. comparing these results with a focus located on the packaging these juices, showing clearly that there was a difference in the percentage concentrated of company to company, And also because of industrial juices and wrong storage methods. The handling and preparation of food products adversely affect the quality of vitamin C in food. since it vulnerable to heat ,oxygen and acid, temperate and alkalinity mediums.With regards to the manufacture of juices, the keepers airtight containers made of sheet metal or glass do not cause the lose of what remains of vitamin C as a result of manufacturing processes only about 10 % while keeping cardboard containers, whether with paraffin layer or polyethylene, they lead to the loss of around 75 % of the past three weeks, even if keeping it in the fridge because these containers do not prevent the access of oxygen to juice and oxidize it, in addition to the work of the upper-packaged juice or occupied by air to oxidize the proportion of juice again, while the addition of carbon alkalinity of the damage vitamin juice damage entirely. Table (2) shows the estimated in natural juice concentration and the proportion of vitamin C .Table (2) :The results were obtained below, represent the vitamin C content in some natural juice in quantity mg / 100 ml . |Quantity Standard |Amount calculated |Natural juices name |Chain | |According to |mg / 100 ml | | | |international | | | | |standards | | | | |mg / 100 mg | | | | |42-50 |98. 64 |Diala orange |1 | |42-50 |107. 1 |Hilla orange |2 | |42-50 |73. 315 |Egyp t orange |3 | |37. |71. 4 |Mandarin |4 | |52. 8 – 72 |63 |pomegranate |5 | |6 |51. 5 |Apple |6 | |13. 6 – 17 |20. 6 |Tomato |7 | |50 |47. 6 |Onion |8 | |14 |22. 1 |Celery |9 | |27 |35. 7 |Cucumber |10 | |11 – 20 |47. 6 |Potato |11 | |75 |83. |Lettuce |12 | | | | | | Scheme (2) : Vitamin C content in some natural juices . In table (2) and scheme (2) the results showed the highest concentration of vitamin C found in orange juice, hitting (107. 1) mg /100ml of juice ,the lowest level was found in tomato juice, when it reached (20. 6)mg /100 ml of juice. Results showed also the presence of vitamin C concentration (107. 1) mg /100ml in naturally orange juice (Hilla),98. 64 mg / 100 ml (Diala) and 73. 315 mg / 100 ml (Egyptian) ,while the concentration of vitamin C in Hilla orange highest from Diala orange which highest more than the Egyptian orange.—– [pic] [pic]

Cereal Marketing Plan Essay - 1382 Words

OMG ACTIVE CEREAL TWO-YEAR MARKETING PLAN By Christine Shao Name and appropriateness of choice OMG is a pet phrase among teenagers and also I want to deliver a message to costumers that the cereal has amazing taste. Our target customers are teenagers, so the word ‘ACTIVE’ is used to describe how the teenagers should be. Summary of market position OMG Active Cereal is a new breakfast cereal which is based on rice bran. Rice bran has a high nutrition value and is rich in anti- oxidants and beta-glucan, which naturally helps lower cholesterol re-absorption. It is made from 100% wholegrain rice imported from China DongBei where produces the top rice in the world. It is also high in fibre, iron and the B vitamins, B1, B2 and niacin. OMG†¦show more content†¦Other notable strengths in OMG Active Cereal include: †¢We will use excellent grocers as global channels of distribution (i.e., Woolworths, Coles, and IGA etc.) †¢ Our pricing strategy is below most of our competition, giving OMG Active Cereal a competitive edge with consumers looking for value for their money. Weakness- A major foreseeable weakness OMG Active Cereal may encounter is that the cereal could be perceived by the public as just another â€Å"nutritious cereal†. There are many kinds of nutritious conscious cereals in today’s market produced by several different companies. Each year, a few more of these cereals are created and placed on each and every grocer’s shelves. A weakness for our newly released cereal could be that breakfast-eating consumers will group OMG Active Cereal along with the average nourishing cereals before eating or becoming cognizant of our cereal’s fantastic features other than especially served for the teenagers. Threat – OMG Active Cereal‘s most noteworthy threat is that soon, many cereal companies will also release a breakfast product that focused on teenagers. Opportunity - Compared to the rest of the market, OMG Active Cereal‘s most notable opportunity is that it is the first cereal which is especially served for the teenagers at the ages of 13 years to 19 years. Competitor analysis OMG Active Cereal has two major competitors- Uncle Tobys and Kellogg’s. Accounting to an online researchShow MoreRelatedMarketing Plan Cereal Bars3872 Words   |  16 PagesWake Up! Marketing Plan | January 17 2010 | Seminar Tutor – Hina Khan. | By James Craven, Katie Fortune, Rory Dunlop, Karl Dickey, Omar Farooq and Sarah Crawford | 1. Market Overview The cereal bar market in the UK in rapidly expanding. Bored with conventional approaches to cereal bars Wake Up bar aims to add extra value to an already popular product. 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Phil Essay - 699 Words

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The Significance of the Players in Hamlet Essay - 899 Words

The Significance of the Players in Hamlet Most characters in Hamlet present themselves as something other than themselves or how as we, the audience, or another character thinks they should appear. Two of the main characters in this play, Hamlet and King Claudius, are constantly acting as something other than their true nature. Ironically, the characters that invoke changes in Hamlet and King Claudius to reveal their real personalities are the players, merely actors themselves, not showing true emotion: (in this short analysis, I will attempt to display the truth revealed by the players) they agitate King Claudius and allow Hamlet to see their appearance as more accurate to the truth than the appearance of real life†¦show more content†¦The players speech was meant to strike emotion into a cowardly Hamlet, or the play would be going in circles because up to this point, Hamlet does not know what to do about what the ghost has told him. It also suggests an idea to Hamlet to see if the actors can muster up emotion or guilt in the king during The Players reenactment of King Hamlets death. Since his confrontation with the ghost, Hamlet has been fickle on his decision and of the ghosts credibility, but now he knows how to reveal the guilt within King Claudius and takes action due to The Players. Through acts 1 and 2, the audience sees virtually no personality in King Claudius. Only in act 3, scene 1, are we shown that maybe the King has something on his mind when he responds to a conversation between Polonius and Ophelia. Polonius tells his daughter that it is okay to pretend and the King responds in an aside saying, How smart a lash that speech doth give my conscience! (49). I feel as though Shakespeare is working up the audiences suspicion of the King for when he is confronted by the performance of the players. Finally, in act 3, scene 2, we are shown the true nature of King Claudius. The players enact the same scenario described to Hamlet by the ghost. The King rises and calls for lights, showing the players, Hamlet, and the audience that what has just been acted has shocked him tremendously.Show MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Shakespeare s Hamlet 886 Words   |  4 Pages â€Å"The play’s the thing†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Hamlet 2.2 .581) The meta-theatrical play The Mousetrap is central to Hamlet. The play-within-a play is a catalyst to the plot and works to illuminate character. This essay will argue that the scene places Hamlet into the role of a playwright who employs theatrical conventions in order to manipulate his audience rather than entertain. Hamlet transforms The Mousetrap play into an accusatory analogy of King Claudius. 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Was Aristotle Right or Wrong free essay sample

Was Aristotle Right or Wrong? Jennifer L. Chadwick Grand Canyon University Biology Concepts Lab June 1, 2011 Resource 1: Was Aristotle Right or Wrong? Directions The exercise below presents a scenario that begins with an observation made by Aristotle (4th century BC). The theory of Spontaneous Generation, which suggests that life originated from inanimate matter, was popular in the ancient world. Your assignment is to apply the scientific method beginning with Aristotle’s observation by answering the questions in this document.All your responses to this assignment should be based on the information given on â€Å"Was Aristotle Right or Wrong? † Scenario Imagine that you live in the 4th century BC. You and Aristotle (your friend and companion of many years) are talking about the many wonders of the universe when your friend makes the following observation: â€Å"So with animals, some spring from parent animals according to their kind, whilst others grow spontaneously and not from kindred stock; and of these instances of spontaneous generation some come from putrefying earth or vegetable matter, as is the case with a number of insects†¦. We will write a custom essay sample on Was Aristotle Right or Wrong? or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page (Wilkins, 2004, para. 12) Well, you think to yourself, Aristotle is a really good friend and an equally great guy, but you aren’t so sure about this Spontaneous generation thing. Just because he observed insects arising from spoiled vegetables doesn’t mean that these bugs just appeared out of the blue. Insects dont just spontaneously arise from spoiled vegetables or, do they? You decide to do a little research of your own by following the steps of the Scientific Method. I. Observation/QuestionIf vegetables are covered then no insects will hatch. III. Prediction This is more specific than your hypothesis. What do you predict will happen in your experiment? Your prediction will include a statement concerning the predicted affect of your independent variable. By changing the environment that the vegetables are stored in and also the climate but keeping the vegetables covered the vegetables will not produce insects. IV. Experimental Design Design an experiment as a tool to find out if your prediction is right or wrong.Remember that good experiments do not set out to prove that a hypothesis is correct, but to test whether or not it is wrong. Four bunches of carrots, open basket, Tupperware container, and cellophane. The control group bunch left on a plate, uncovered on the counter. One test group outside in a basket, one test group in the refrigerator in cellophane and one test group in Tupperware on a shelf inside a kitchen cupboard. Never open or unwrap the containers the carrots are in, just observe through the plastic every 12 hours until they begin to rot. Once they begin to rot I will observe more frequently. The Independent Variable The independent variable is the variable that you intentionally change. Independent variable is the climate the vegetables are kept in. The Dependent Variable The dependent variable is the variable that is being measured. This is your data. It is the difference between the experimental group and the control groups after you adjust the independent variable. I will observe what happens regarding the insects by what I did to change the environment they are kept in. The Controlled Variables Controlled variables are the vegetables. GCU style is not required for the document as a whole, but solid writing skill is expected. The experiment had three test subjects, carrots wrapped in cellophane in the fridge, carrots in Tupperware in a kitchen cupboard and carrots in a basket sitting outside. The control was carrots left on a plate on the counter. This experiment could be conducted with different vegetables, fruits and even meats at different times of the year and in different climates and I believe the results would be the same. Covered fruits, veggies or meats may get gross and smelly if left to rot but will not birth insects.

Too Big to Fail

The too big to fail is a concept that certain banks or financial institutions cannot be let to fail, since their failure would have too much effect on the general economy thus causing financial disability on the national and even international financial systems (A dictionary of Business and Management 2).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Too Big to Fail specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The reasoning behind the â€Å"too big to fail† concept is that if a bank or financial institution that does business with a lot other businesses in the economy was to fail, then the rebound effect would be too much for the economy to handle. As such, the central bank is obligated to bail such financial institutions out, not so much for the sake of the individual institution, but to shield the economy from the consequences of the closure. According to the (A Dictionary of Business and Management 45), the too big to f ail concept contends that once the central bank bails the bank, the bank willingly takes on more risks to make business more viable. The too big to fail theory is only applicable to large financial institutions connected to other financial institutions (Wessel 5). Investors who do business with the too big to fail institutions are a less worried lot than their counterpart who trade with ordinary financial institutions because they have a â€Å"taxpayer subsidy†, which cushions them against losses (Wessel 12). However, not all financial institutions get the bail out as indicated in the theory. In 1995, Baring Brothers, a London based Merchant Bank was not bailed out as would have been anticipated because the Bank of England did not see any risk to the financial systems in the country that could be caused by its failure. Further, it was established that the Baring Brothers had failed due to irregular trading the bank had in Singapore’s derivates market (A Dictionary of B usiness Management 16). The too big to fail concept is a reaction to the continued mergers and acquisitions in the financial sectors, which leads to a complexity of financial institutions. According to (Folkerts-Landau et al 13), consolidation is mainly motivated by cost saving measures, or revenue enhancement motives. In the wake of globalization, such financial conglomerates are no longer content with working inside territorial boundaries (A Dictionary of Business Management 25). This means that they are more willing to explore the international markets. Consequently, this exposes them to more risks.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In a free market economy, it is only plausible that market forces would close banks that do not meet their credit obligations (Hetzel 7). However, this does not happen with too big to fail financial institutions. Traditionally, the regu lation of the banking sector was the mandate of bank regulators. With the increased diversification of the financial institutions, which includes mergers among banks, insurance companies and even funds management, banking regulators are finding themselves more as observers, rather than regulators. This is mainly because with the diversification of the financial firms, systemic regulation which was the forte of the banking regulators is overwhelmed by the mere complexity. More to this, the management of financial conglomerates is more integrated laying little emphasis on legal entities and functional regulatory authorities of national borders. Considering this, often complex financial transactions that such conglomerates handle, the occurrence of failure in the big financial institutions leans more towards systemic failures than anything else. There is contention among financial analysts about the effect of too-big-to-fail. While one group maintains that it is a good policy to ensure that economies do not suffer as a result of a financial conglomerate going bankrupt, others (Dowd 1; Bebchuk 1) contends that this concept encourages financial institutions to take irresponsible risk, with the full knowledge that they are assured of survival since the government cannot after all let them fail. â€Å"The Too big to fail concept resulted from a deficiency in bankruptcy arrangements for banks† (Hetzel 3). Such sentiments are aired because unlike nonfinancial institutions which are subject to bankruptcy arrangements should they fail to meet their financial obligations; banks are exempted from bankruptcy law. In its place, banks and other financial institutions can continue with normal operations as policy makers determine whether they are viable or not. This approach is adopted because though banks may fail to meet their short term credit obligations, they are usually viable for restructuring. More to this, it is agreeable that even when a financial institution cannot be restructured, giving it time to liquidate its assets over a length of time results in more value than immediate closure. In the absence of bankruptcy laws for the financial institutions, the Federal Reserve and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (at least in the United States) has been mandated with coming up with an â€Å"informal discount window† for financial institutions for purposes of preventing abrupt closure. As such, too big to fail is perceived as a concept that arose mainly from pressures arising from unsatisfactory arrangements for closing bankrupt banks, rather from conscious decisions by policy makers (Hetzel 6).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Too Big to Fail specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A recent activity in the financial market was testimony to the Too big to fail concept. In the financial crisis that hit the financial markets across the world starting 2007 to 2009, Bear Sterns and AIG were among financial institutions that received government bailout. However, Lehman Brothers did not. This left analysts as well as laymen wondering just what banking regulators and supervisors considers when deciding whether a bank is too big to fail. Literature in to this concept (Folkerts-Landau et al 13 ; Rajan 4) indicate that large financial institutions are more likely to be categorized as too big to fail compared to average or small institutions. More to this, the potential cost to taxpayers and the general economy is also weighted before regulators and supervisors decide whether to bailout a bank or not. Notably Lehman Brothers had $691.1 billion book value worth of assets at the time of its closure, while Bear Stearns had $395.4 billion book value of assets when it was bailed out. Too big to fail has a fair share of benefits as well as disadvantages. The benefits include the fact that banks gain favor with uninsured creditors and other participan ts in the market. In addition, too big to fail institutions are able to operate on lower regulatory costs thus increasing the probability of receiving more regulatory leniency. The fact that such institutions have access to the government’s safety net means that they can operate on a lower capital base and funds as compared to other financial institutions (Folkerts-Landau et al 11). The perception that the government would bail out such institutions in an event of a financial crisis allows more uninsured creditors the luxury of doing business with the too big to fail institutions. The disadvantages however seem to outweigh the good since the concept reduces discipline in the financial markets by encouraging excessive risk taking by the financial institutions, creating uneven playing fields for smaller and emerging financial institutions, and costing the government and the tax payer a lot of money, should a bail-out be deemed necessary (Cloutier 4). In the wake of a need to fi nd a solution to the cost that the too big to fail institutions cost the government in bailouts or the entire risk they pose to the economy should they be allowed to fail, several remedies have been suggested.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More First, analysts, (Rajan 6; Cloutier 4) suggests that â€Å"bank regulators need resolution authority over the too big to fail institutions, just the same way that the FDIC has resolution authority over banks.† Currently, regulators have no authority over the resolution of banking holding companies or non-banking institutions. More transparency in the financial sectors is also recommended as one of the too big to fail remedy (Rajan 6). Currently, regulators and supervisors only have piecemeal information regarding the operations of most banking institutions. Without such information, supervisors especially have a hard time conducting onsite examination of the financial institutions and their subsidiaries. In an ideal situation, supervisory authorities have the legal mandate to conduct examinations of data provided to them by the banks, verify the same, restrain any unsound practices by the banks and in extreme circumstances, force the banks to exit (Folkerts-Landau et al 13) B reaking up the too big to fail institutions may be the least desirable action to the players, but such an action would be the most ideal to completely resolve the risk issues posed by such institutions to the entire economy (Cloutier 3). This however would be a systemic approach that could take years before enforcement since it would need policy formulation and willingness on the part of the financial players. In an address to congress, (Cloutier 13) stated that â€Å"the prevailing financial system is too concentrated, and lacking the necessary regulation. The four largest banking companies in the United States today control an excess of 40 percent of the country’s deposits, an excess of 50 percent of all assets held by banks in the entire country.† Such concentration is prone to political pressures especially where guarantees on the public sector are needed to guarantee the banks’ liabilities (Folkerts-Landau et al 13). With this statistics, it is rather obvio us that the too big to fail institutions pose a major risk to the economy. Having a more diverse banking sector would not only reduce the risk, but would also promote competition and innovation, in addition to availing consumers more channels of credit and business. Dealing with the already established too big to fail financial institutions or the too-interconnected business which are hard to regulate and manage can be through breaking them up, or forcing them to divest assets (Cloutier 4). The latter would reduce the risk that such institutions pose to the financial systems. More so, preventing others from coming up, through regulating the extent to which a financial institution can grow is also a viable alternative (Rajan 13). With these solutions in mind, it is however proper to acknowledge the process of growth that leads to the too big to fail institutions. Unlike what most people would be tempted to believe, these institutions follow an organic growth path, mainly as a result of efficiency in management and strategic planning. Through expansion and growth, most of them realize the profits that come with business growth. To some, diversification is a mode of risk reduction. As such, a number have invested not only in traditional-like banking systems, but have also diversified their investments into mutual funds and insurance. This makes the remedies suggested above even more hard to enact across the board. Even if regulators and supervisory authorities were given the freehand to handle these banks, the mere amount of books, information and business is just overwhelming (Rajan 4). This is because the institutions have assets, gross-derivatives positions, liabilities, net-derivatives positions, profitability margins and transactions, all which form a reasonable metric through which the regulators can impose a limit. Conclusion The expansion, mergers and acquisitions that led to the creation of too bog to fail institutions is tantamount to mixing commerce an d banking. This is a dangerous precedent that will continue posing systemic risks in the financial sector (Coutier 11). In the United States, the mandate to find lasting solutions to this concept lies with the concept, which has the powers to initiate policy frameworks that would infuse regulation, assessment and the eventual disintegration of financial institutions that are too big for the general good of the economy. Further, it is still within Congress’ mandate to come up with policies that would prevent future concentration of commercial and financial powers in institution since such are the source of the current too big to fail institutions. After all, the phrase â€Å"if it’s too big to fail, it’s probably too big to exist† might contain some wisdom that may shield the financial markets in the future. Works Cited A Dictionary of Business and Management. â€Å"Too Big to Fail†. Encyclopedia.com. 2006. Web. Bebchuk, Lucian. â€Å"AIG still isn ’t Too Big to Fail.† The Wall Street Journal. March 2009. Web. Cloutier, Couns. â€Å"Too Big to Fail: The Role of the Anti-trust Law in Government-Funded Consolidation in the Banking Industry.† Testimony of Mr. C.R. Cloutier, president and CEO, MidSouth Bank, NA. March 2009. Web. Dowd, Kevin. â€Å"Too Big to Fail? Long Term Capital Management and the Federal Reserve.† CATO institute Briefing Papers. No. 51 (1996):1-12. Print. Folkerts-Landau , David. F., Lindgren, Carl-Johan and IMF. Toward a framework for financial stability. New York: International Monetary Fund, 1998. Print. Hetzel, Robert, L. â€Å"Too Big to Fail. Origins, Consequences, and Outlook.† Economic Review. (1991): 4-13. Rajan, Raghuram. â€Å"Too Systemic to Fail: Consequences, causes and Potential remedies.†Written Statement to the Senate Banking Committee Hearings. May 6, 2009. Web. Wessel, David. â€Å"Three Theories on Solving the ‘Too Big to Fail’ Probl em.† The Wall Street Journal. October 29, 2009. Web. This research paper on Too Big to Fail was written and submitted by user Robert Mcfadden to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. Too Big to Fail